Book 32: The Book Of Jihad And Expeditions
Overview
The Book of Jihad and Expeditions in Sahih Muslim serves as a foundational text for Islamic military jurisprudence and historical theology. It systematically details the Prophet Muhammad's commands regarding warfare, establishing a tripartite ultimatum for non-believers: accept Islam, pay the subjugation tax (Jizya), or face the sword. The text chronicles major early Islamic conflicts, including Badr, Uhud, the Ditch (Ahzab), Khaibar, Hunain, and the Conquest of Mecca. It addresses the theological and practical handling of war spoils (Ghanima and Fai'), explicitly stating that booty was made lawful for Muslims as a special divine dispensation. Significant theological precedents are set, such as the doctrine that Prophets leave no material inheritance (their wealth goes to charity), which sparked early sectarian friction between Muhammad's family (Ali, Fatima, Abbas) and the Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar). The text also details the permissible use of deception in war, the targeted assassination of critics (Ka'b b. Ashraf), the execution of the men of Banu Quraiza, the expulsion of Jewish tribes from the Arabian Peninsula, and the belief in direct angelic intervention in battle. For the believer, it cultivates a worldview where spiritual devotion is inextricably linked to political dominance and military striving.
Key Figures
- Muhammad: The Prophet of Islam, depicted as the ultimate military commander, recipient of divine revelation, and distributor of war spoils.
- Abu Bakr: The first Caliph, who defended the doctrine that Prophets leave no inheritance, denying Fatima's claim to Muhammad's property.
- Umar b. al-Khattab: The second Caliph, prominent military advisor who advocated for the execution of Badr prisoners and upheld Abu Bakr's ruling on prophetic inheritance.
- Ali b. Abu Talib: Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, scribe of the Treaty of Hudaibiya, hero of the Battle of Khaibar, and claimant to Muhammad's legacy.
- Fatima: Muhammad's daughter, who disputed with Abu Bakr over her inheritance (Fadak/Khaibar) and died angry with him.
- Abbas: Muhammad's uncle, who disputed with Ali over the Prophet's legacy and rallied the fleeing troops at Hunain.
- Sa'd b. Mu'adh: The companion who passed the divinely sanctioned judgment to execute the men of Banu Quraiza and enslave their women and children.
- Salama b. al-Akwa': A prominent, highly skilled warrior whose extensive first-hand accounts of battles, raids, and single combats are detailed.
- Ka'b b. Ashraf: A Jewish poet assassinated by Muhammad's followers for maligning Allah and His Messenger.
- Abu Sufyan: Meccan leader who opposed Muhammad but surrendered during the Conquest of Mecca, securing safety for those who entered his house.
- Abu Jahl: A chief of the Quraish and fierce enemy of Muhammad, killed at the Battle of Badr.
- Heraclius (Hiraql): The Byzantine Emperor who received Muhammad's letter inviting him to Islam and acknowledged Muhammad's prophetic signs.
- Umm Sulaim: A female companion who carried a dagger at Hunain and participated in nursing the wounded.
Doctrines Analyzed
Key theological claims identified in this text:
Jihad and the Tripartite Ultimatum
Assertion
Before engaging in battle, Muslims must invite polytheists to three options: accept Islam, pay the Jizya (subjugation tax), or face war.
Evidence from Text
Invite them to (accept) Islam... If they refuse to accept Islam, demand from them the Jizya... If they refuse to pay the tax, seek Allah's help and fight them.
Evangelical Comparison
In this text, Islamic theology explicitly links the advancement of the faith with military conquest and political subjugation. The mandate to fight those who refuse Islam or the Jizya demonstrates a theology where the state and religion are fused, and the sword is a legitimate tool for divine justice. In contrast, Evangelical Christianity adheres to Christ's declaration in John 18:36: 'My kingdom is not of this world. If it were, my servants would fight.' The New Testament paradigm for spreading the faith is entirely persuasive and spiritual, relying on the preaching of the Gospel and the conviction of the Holy Spirit (Romans 1:16, 2 Corinthians 10:4). The use of violence to expand the church is a violation of biblical ethics.
Lawfulness of War Spoils (Ghanima/Fai')
Assertion
The spoils of war, including wealth, property, and captives, are made lawful and pure for Muslims, unlike previous nations.
Evidence from Text
The spoils of war were not made lawful for any people before us, This is because Allah saw our weakness and humility and made them lawful for us.
Evangelical Comparison
The text asserts that Allah specifically permitted the taking of war booty for the Muslim community as a sign of favor. This includes the distribution of captured wealth, land, and human beings (slaves/concubines). The Prophet himself receives a mandatory one-fifth (Khums) or the entirety of properties abandoned without a fight (Fai'). Evangelical theology recognizes that while God used national Israel as an instrument of judgment in the Old Testament (which sometimes included taking spoils), the New Testament Church is not a geopolitical entity. The pursuit of material wealth through violence is antithetical to the teachings of Jesus, who warned against storing up treasures on earth (Matthew 6:19) and taught that His followers would be persecuted, not conquerors seeking earthly booty (Matthew 5:10-12).
Prophetic Inheritance
Assertion
Prophets do not leave material wealth to their heirs; whatever they leave behind is considered charity.
Evidence from Text
We (prophets) do not have any heirs; what we leave behind is (to be given in) charity.
Evangelical Comparison
This doctrine became a major point of contention in early Islam, leading to the permanent estrangement between Muhammad's daughter Fatima and the first Caliph, Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr used this Hadith to deny Fatima the lands of Fadak and Khaibar, insisting the wealth belonged to the state/charity. Evangelical Christianity has no such doctrine regarding prophets. While biblical figures often lived lives of poverty or left spiritual legacies (like Elijah to Elisha), there is no divine mandate forbidding them from leaving earthly possessions to their children. The true legacy of Christ, the ultimate Prophet, Priest, and King, is the inheritance of eternal life and the indwelling of the Holy Spirit given to all adopted children of God (Romans 8:16-17).
Sanctioned Deception and Assassination
Assertion
Deception is a legitimate tactic in warfare, and the targeted assassination of those who mock or oppose the Prophet is divinely sanctioned.
Evidence from Text
War is a stratagem... [Regarding Ka'b b. Ashraf] Muhammad b. Maslama said: Permit me to talk (to him in the way I deem fit). He said: Talk (as you like).
Evangelical Comparison
The text explicitly states 'War is a stratagem' (deceit) and details the assassination of Ka'b b. Ashraf. Muhammad b. Maslama asks permission to lie to Ka'b to lure him out, which Muhammad grants. They use the pretext of friendship and a false complaint against Muhammad to isolate and murder Ka'b. This sharply contrasts with biblical ethics. God is the 'God of truth' (Psalm 31:5), and Satan is the 'father of lies' (John 8:44). The New Testament commands believers to 'put away falsehood and speak the truth' (Ephesians 4:25). Furthermore, Jesus commanded His followers to 'love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you' (Matthew 5:44), directly contradicting the practice of assassinating critics.
Collateral Damage and Treatment of Children
Assertion
While intentionally killing children is forbidden, killing them as collateral damage during night raids is permissible because 'they are from them.'
Evidence from Text
What about the children of polytheists killed by the cavalry during the night raid? He said: They are from them.
Evangelical Comparison
The text presents a nuanced view of non-combatants. While explicit commands forbid killing women and children, when asked about children killed accidentally in night raids, Muhammad dismisses the concern by stating 'They are from them' (meaning they share the status of their polytheist parents). Evangelical theology holds to the absolute sanctity of human life (Genesis 1:27). While the Old Testament records instances of total warfare (Herem) commanded directly by God against specific Canaanite nations for their extreme wickedness, these were unique, unrepeatable historical judgments, not a perpetual rule of engagement. The New Testament ethic calls for the protection of the vulnerable and the innocent.
Comparative Analysis
Theological Gap (Summary)
The text merges spiritual authority with military and political power, validating violence, assassination, and subjugation to advance religion. Christianity separates the spiritual kingdom from the sword, advancing through persuasion, love, and the Gospel.
Theological Gap (Explained)
The fundamental theological gap lies in the nature of the Kingdom of God and the means of its advancement. In Islamic theology, as demonstrated extensively in this text, the spiritual and the political/military are inextricably linked. Jihad (physical warfare) is a divinely sanctioned mechanism for subjugating unbelievers, expanding Islamic territory, and acquiring material wealth (booty), which is explicitly declared 'lawful and pure.' The Prophet acts as both a spiritual conduit and a military general, and his actions—including ordering assassinations, executing captives, and taking concubines—are viewed as the perfect will of God. This directly violates the Evangelical understanding of Christ's Kingdom, which is 'not of this world' (John 18:36). The New Testament paradigm for spreading the faith is entirely persuasive and spiritual. Furthermore, the text's endorsement of deception ('War is a stratagem') and the targeted killing of critics stands in stark contrast to the biblical ethic of holiness, truth-telling, and enemy-love modeled by Christ (Matthew 5:44, 1 Peter 2:22-23). Soteriologically, the text replaces justification by faith alone with a works-righteousness paradigm where shedding blood in Jihad is the highest metric of devotion.
For All Ages
Imagine two kings. One king says, 'To show you love me, you must fight my enemies with swords, take their land, and make them pay taxes.' The other King, Jesus, says, 'My kingdom is in your heart. To show you love me, love your enemies, pray for them, and tell them about my forgiveness.' The text we read is about the first king. It teaches that God wants believers to fight physical wars to make the world obey their religion. It says taking the enemies' money and property is a reward from God. But the Bible teaches that Jesus already won the biggest war against sin and death on the cross. We don't need to fight people with swords; we need to share God's love. Jesus taught us to be peacemakers, not warriors.
Friction Points
Nature of Christ's Kingdom
The text mandates physical warfare, taxation of non-believers, and state execution to advance the religion, contradicting Christ's teaching that His kingdom is not of this world.
Sola Fide (Justification by Faith Alone)
The text elevates physical participation in Jihad and martyrdom as the ultimate means of securing Paradise and erasing sin.
Biblical Ethics and Holiness
The text sanctions deception, the assassination of critics, the execution of captives, and the taking of war booty (including humans), violating biblical commands against murder, lying, and covetousness.
Semantic Warnings
Terms that have different meanings between traditions:
"Martyrdom"
In This Text
Dying in physical combat while attempting to kill the enemies of Islam.
In Evangelicalism
Dying as a witness for Christ, typically through persecution, without offering violent resistance.
"Peace"
In This Text
The cessation of hostilities achieved when non-Muslims either convert to Islam or submit to Islamic political rule and pay the Jizya.
In Evangelicalism
Reconciliation with God through the blood of Christ, resulting in internal tranquility and relational harmony.
Soteriology (Salvation)
Salvation Defined: Attaining Paradise, escaping the Fire, and receiving the pleasure and forgiveness of Allah.
How Attained: Through belief in Allah and Muhammad, heavily supplemented by works, with Jihad (fighting and dying in battle) being the supreme act of devotion that guarantees Paradise.
Basis of Assurance: Martyrdom provides absolute assurance. Otherwise, assurance is based on the hope that one's good deeds (like fighting) outweigh their bad deeds.
Comparison to Sola Fide: This text stands in direct opposition to Sola Fide. Salvation is earned through extreme physical effort, shedding blood, and strict obedience to military commands, whereas Ephesians 2:8-9 declares salvation is a free gift of grace, not of works.
Mandates & Requirements
Explicit Commands
- Fight in the name of Allah and in the way of Allah.
- Fight against those who disbelieve in Allah.
- Do not embezzle the spoils.
- Do not break your pledge.
- Do not mutilate dead bodies.
- Do not kill children (with the exception of night raid collateral).
- Invite polytheists to accept Islam.
- Invite converts to migrate to the land of the Muhajireen.
- Demand the Jizya tax if they refuse Islam.
- Fight them if they refuse the Jizya.
- Accord your own guarantee, not Allah's guarantee, when besieging a fort.
- Show leniency and do not be hard upon the people.
- Give glad tidings and do not create aversion.
- Do not desire an encounter with the enemy, but be firm when you do.
- Expel the Jews and Christians from the Arabian Peninsula.
Implicit Obligations
- Absolute obedience to the Prophet and his appointed military commanders.
- Willingness to sacrifice one's life (martyrdom) in battle for the cause of Islam.
- Acceptance of the Prophet's distribution of wealth and booty without complaint.
- Loyalty to the Muslim community over tribal or familial ties.
Ritual Requirements
- Performing the Zuhr prayer at specific commanded locations (e.g., Banu Quraiza).
- Offering the Istisqa prayer (two rak'ahs) to ask for rain.
- Maintaining daily prayers even during military campaigns and sieges.
Evangelism Toolkit
Practical tools for engagement and dialogue:
Discovery Questions
Open-ended questions to promote reflection:
- In the text, Muhammad permits deception in war and orders the assassination of Ka'b b. Ashraf. How do you reconcile this with the idea of God being absolute truth and holiness?
- The text mentions that war spoils were made lawful for Muslims because of their 'weakness.' Why would God reward spiritual devotion with material wealth and captured people?
- Jesus taught His followers to love their enemies and pray for them. How does this compare to the commands here to fight enemies until they pay the Jizya or convert?
- If a prophet's role is to bring spiritual life, why was so much of early Islamic history focused on military conquest and the distribution of booty?
Redemptive Analogies
Bridges from this text to the Gospel:
The Ransom of Prisoners
The concept of a captive needing a ransom to be set free is central to the Gospel. Instead of demanding a ransom from us, God provided the ransom Himself.
The Need for an Intercessor
The desire for a leader who intercedes with God for his people points to the ultimate Mediator, Jesus Christ, who perfectly intercedes for us.
Spiritual Weight
Burdens this text places on adherents:
The believer is burdened with the need to physically strive, fight, and potentially die to prove their faith and secure Paradise. The constant pressure to perform acts of Jihad creates anxiety about whether one has done enough to please Allah.
Because fleeing from battle or questioning the Prophet's military decisions is equated with hypocrisy and spiritual ruin, believers must suppress any moral or practical doubts they have about the violence or the distribution of wealth.
The believer must reconcile the innate human conscience (which recoils at assassination, deception, and the execution of captives) with the theological claim that these acts are the perfect will of God when commanded by the Prophet.